8 Read the following text. Exploration through the ages

New discoveries in science will continue to create a thousand new frontiers for those who still would favour adventure. Herbert Hoover, American President

One of the key reasons for early explorations was probably the need to find food or to move away from areas where climate change caused environmental changes. While modern technology allows water to be stored so that people can stay in areas for longer periods of time, this would not have been so in prehistoric times. When the water ran out, it would be time to move on.

Many of the earliest explorations were therefore probably accidental. More organized exploration began in the Middle East. The first recorded voyage into unknown seas was a four-year expedition around 4,500 years ago, to search for and buy valuable goods, including gold, incense and myrrh.

Some of the earliest sea voyages were undertaken by the Polynesians who had immediate and easy contact with the ocean. As they spread from island to island, their navigational skills and knowledge of the area grew. Later in the 15^th-16^th century the development of the quadrant and other instruments, a better understanding of the functioning of the magnetic compass, as well as improvements in cartography made voyages somewhat less dangerous.

While the original Vikings - from Norway - were initially prepared to loot and plunder throughout Northern Europe, others soon demonstrated a desire to settle in the new lands. Settlements were soon established throughout Europe, and it was found that the previously aggressive settlers were quite the opposite once they had some land and security.

Although the Vikings managed to set foot in North America, they had little idea of what exactly they had achieved. They, like many others, stumbled there thinking they had in fact found just another small island.

Often the explorations of a curious traveller would open the eyes of others to new things that might then be used in their home, country. The success of Marco Polo’s expeditions to Italy, Asia and China inspired many others to follow in his footsteps.

The explorations by Christopher Columbus and other Europeans during the 15th and 16th centuries showed a subtle difference from earlier journeys. A new element in the ethos of the time was a thirst for glory and recognition of the individual, which joined religion and riches as a major factor in exploration.

Trade has provided one of the key reasons for exploration throughout the years. Much of the exploration by Europeans in the 15th and 16th centuries was motivated by commerce and trade in exotic goods, as well as by the need to find faster trade routes. Several governments negotiated treaties so that their nationals could trade in other countries.

Massive changes were now taking place in Europe, with new ideas affecting many traditional areas of life. Politics, economics, religion and social organisation were all undergoing huge upheavals. The population grew rapidly, creating an increased demand for food. Among the workforce, there was a trend towards developing a particular expertise, which included a rapid growth in the number of merchants. With growing wealth, the old barter economy was no longer efficient. Instead, there was a demand for gold and other precious metals, some of which was turned into coins and used for buying and selling.

Probably even more prized at this time were spices, which were used for preserving and flavouring meats. This was important at a time when even fresh food, if available, could be rather tasteless. These items, such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves, were only found growing naturally in India and certain areas of the east.

During the 18th century there was a renewed emphasis on exploration for scientific purposes and to improve the stock of information and understanding that was available. European intellectuals became aware of their ignorance about certain aspects of the physical and natural world and were keen to do something about it. Many ocean voyages were on vessels that were basically floating scientific laboratories. They had trained scientists on board, as well as a vast array of equipment and skilled artists and draftsmen to make accurate records of the voyage.

In the 20th century, countries competed to gain prestige. With less and less land to discover and claim, there were races to the North Pole, the South Pole, Everest, the depths of the oceans, the space.

Exploring, investigating and researching space involve a lot of money, time and effort. Governments spend huge resources on space rather than on conditions and people on Earth, deriving so few apparent benefits from it.

Why should mankind explore space? Perhaps the best answer lies in our genetic makeup as human beings. Our distant ancestors moved from the trees into the plains, and on into all possible areas and environments to ensure the success and continuation of not just our own genes, but of the species as a whole. The wider the distribution of a species, the better its chance of survival. Perhaps the best reasons for exploring space is this genetic predisposition to expand wherever possible.

Nearly every successful civilisation has explored, because by doing so, any dangers in surrounding areas can be identified and prepared for. These might be enemies in neighbouring cultures, physical features of the area, a change in the area which might affect food supplies, or any number of other factors. They all pose a real danger, and all can be made less threatening if certain preparations are made. Without knowledge, we may be completely destroyed by the danger. With knowledge, we can lessen its effects.

Exploration also allows minerals and other potential resources to be located. Additional resources are always beneficial when used wisely, and can increase our chances of survival. Even if we have no immediate need of them, they will perhaps be useful later.

Resources may be more than physical assets. Knowledge or techniques acquired through exploration, or preparing to explore, filter from the developers into society at large. The techniques may have medical applications which can improve the length or quality of our lives. Techniques may be social, allowing members of society better to understand those within or outside the culture. Better understanding may lead to more efficient use of resources, or a reduction in competition for resources. We have already benefited from other spin-offs, including improvements in earthquake prediction - which has saved many lives - in satellites used for weather forecasting and in communications systems. Even non-stick saucepans and mirrored sunglasses are by-products of technological developments in the space industry!

While many resources are spent on what seems a small return, the exploration of space allows creative, brave and intelligent members of our species to focus on what may serve to save us. While space may hold many wonders and explanations of how the universe was formed or how it works, it also holds dangers. The chances of a large comet or asteroid hitting the Earth are small, but it could happen in time. Such strikes in the past may account for the extinction of dinosaurs and other species. Human technology is reaching the point where it might be able to detect the possibility of this happening, and enable us to minimise the damage, or prevent it completely, allowing us as a species to avoid extinction. The danger exists, but knowledge can help human beings to survive. Without the ability to reach out across space, the chance to save ourselves might not exist.

In certain circumstances, life on Earth may become impossible: over-population or epidemics, for instance, might eventually force us to find other places to live. While Earth is the only planet known to sustain life, surely the adaptive ability of humans would allow us to inhabit other planets and moons. It is true that the lifestyle would be different, but human life and cultures have adapted in the past and surely could in the future.

The more a culture expands, the less chance there is that it will become extinct. Space allows us to expand and succeed: for the sake of everyone on the Earth, now and in the future, space exploration is essential.

Summarising